Evaluation: Sound Practice for Professional Development and Student Learning

There is a common theme with regards to the need for effective instruction and professional development. In their article highlighting a research study supporting the effectiveness of professional development, Birman, Desimone, Porter, and Garet (2000) state ". . . it is essential that staff development provide the content and opportunities necessary to foster teacher learning and changes in practice" (p. 32). In light of instructional leadership on the part of teachers, Dick and Carey (2001) state that "[i]t is our thesis that the primary role of the teacher is that of designer of instruction, with accompanying roles of implementor and evaluator of instruction. This is a critical statement to consider. If education is to meet the needs of individual students through provision of appropriate knowledge and training in important skills, there must be increased dependence upon well-designed, effective instruction (p. 73). There repeated call for well-designed and effective professional development for teachers in addition to student learning opportunities.
Evaluation is a cornerstone in education. It informs us of potential issues in the future, how we are doing currently and how effective our learning experience was. According to Guskey (1999) in his paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association where he explores the evaluation process of professional development evaluation is defined as the examination of evidence and the application of judgment in a systematic investigation of merit and worth (p. 3). There is an obvious connection between the systematic design for instruction and effective professional development programs.
Guskey (1999) identifies three broad categories of evaluation including: planning, formative and summative (p. 4). Planning refers to an evaluation that takes place prior to the professional development activity. He highlights four aspects in this evaluation process including: identification of needs, assessing the characteristics of the participants, analysis of the context and the collection of related baseline information (p. 4). It is difficult not to draw the parallels that exist between Guskey's (1999) work with Dick and Carey's (2001) model of instructional design. Referring to their instructional model below, these four aspects are explicitly identified by Dick and Carey in their first three steps of a nine step design process for instruction.

Continuing the comparison, formative evaluation, according to Guskey (1999) is an evaluation that occurs throughout the process. Dick and Carey (2005) include formative evaluation in their instructional model and state that "[formative] evaluation provides the designer with a different type of information that can be used to improve the instruction" (p. 16). Guskey (1999) supports this by identifying formative evaluation as the most useful form of assessment as it is focused on the conditions necessary for success. It happens throughout the activity it usually provides the opportunity to make adjustments, modifications or revisions throughout (pp. 5-6). There appears to be a common belief between these individuals that formative assessments can inform and aid in the revision of instruction whether it is for teachers or students. It is integral and key to effective design.
Another commonality is that of the presence of a summative evaluation. Summative evaluations happen after the learning has occurred and it provides feedback about the effectiveness of the activity. Guskey (1999) indicates its role in the evaluation process of professional development, allowing for judgments of the overall worth or merit of the professional activity. The summative evaluation provides the opportunity for decisions regarding the life of the program or activity (pp. 6-7). In contrast, Dick and Carey (2005) have the summative evaluation as a separate component of the design for learning and do not consider it an integral part of the design process.

Clearly the three aspects of evaluation, planning, formative and summative are regarded as integral to effective instruction both for teachers and students.

References

Birman, B. F., Desimone, L., Poter, A. C., & Garet, M. S. (2000). Designing professional development that works. Educational Leadership(May), 28-33.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (2001). The systematic design of instruction: Origins of systematically designed instruction. In D.P Ely & T. Plomp (Eds), Classical writings on instructional technology (vol. 2., pp. 71-80). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. (2005). The systematic design of instruction: (sixth edition). Boston, M.A : Pearson/ Allyn & Bacon.

 

Guskey, T. R. (1999). New perspectives on evaluating professional development. In the American Educational Research Association. Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Teachers and Educational Research- Promoting Staff Development

It is that time of year again, the same doom and gloom of the budget. Ballooning class sizes is the new way to deal with the budget constraints that have been placed on school leadership. How does one deal with this, how about teach 7 out of 8 classes? Sound familiar? I know that there are a number of teachers in the province that do this on a yearly basis. My question is at what expense? There is a clear statement in the literature to ensure effective performance of students in the classroom there needs to be effective teaching. How does one bring about effective teaching? Through the provision of ongoing professional development teaching practice is improved and thus student learning.

In their comprehensive review of the state of professional development in America, Sparks and Hirsh (2000), list a number of standards and guidelines that the National Staff Development Council states that they feel school systems should use including; setting high standards for the learning of all students, invest in teacher learning, embed opportunities for professional learning to name but a few (pp. 5-6). They also state that the NSDC promotes "at least 25 percent of teachers' time be devoted to their own learning" (p. 6). My question to those in power, controlling the funding for education, when do educators do this professional development that is highly recommended for enhanced teaching when individuals are teaching 7 out of 8 classes? Teaching without preparation time, would for me personally be reason enough for me to switch careers. I know that if I am not provided this time, I cannot do the best possible job for those kids in front of me. I have a moral obligation to bring my best for these kids and yet the system in which we work is not conducive to that. Where is the foresight on the part of political leadership? Are we not informed enough about sound education?

Sparks and Hirsh (2000) highlight the fact that teachers are not in the loop as they are often unaware of current research findings. "Staff development should be grounded in solid research, not only to convey the best teaching methods and appropriate curriculum content, but also to help school staff understand the process of change and how to work collaboratively to solve problems, alter the school's culture, and build structures that support teacher learning" (p. 8). If our teachers are not in the loop I would propose that our political leaders are even further out of the loop as evidenced by the priorities they set with their budgetary choices. The question arises as to how we as educators and future leaders in education bring this to everyone's attention? Spark and Hirsh (2000)propose the establishment of a National Centre on Professional Development to collect, filter and distribute information on professional development while States (or provinces) could be responsible for ensuring that there are adequate resources (ie. new teachers with mentors, increasing funding and time for quality staff development and monitor how the funds are spent). This information would need to be monitored by the provincial government, specifically the department responsible for education. Clearly there is a need to have education become a priority for our leaders in order for professional development to take its appropriate place.

Are there things that we can do at a local level that can promote the teacher learning that we so need? Can we do more with less? Spark and Hirsh (2000) outline a number of strategies that we can do at a local level in an effort to create a learning school: 1. Allow more time for staff to work and plan together, 2. Provide common planning time so teachers can study standards together, create lessons and practice and share new teaching methods, 3. Organize a time for sets of teachers who share common students to meet and discuss student issues, 4. Assign new and struggling teachers with a mentor (preferably with a common time to meet throughout the day), 5.Provide opportunities for peer observation, 6. Organize programs of peer coaching where teachers could help each other (p.11). In light of these suggestions, local school leadership have a difficult task (but worthy of the effort) in organizing their schools for staff learning.

"Missing from the field of research on teaching, . . ., are the voices of teachers themselves, the questions teachers ask and the interpretive frames that teachers use to understand and improve classroom practices" (Evans, Lomax and Morgan, 2000, p. 416). As an alternative to the common way of providing professional development, (one shot workshops, two day conferences) there is evidence of establishing an action research program with a staff as an effective way to enhance teacher learning. In writing about a school-university partnership that has led to the establishment of a community of teacher researchers whose investigations provide the evidence upon which they make decisions to improve their teaching, Evans, Lomax and Morgan (2000), state that ". . . action research partnerships between schools and universities [are an] effective way for research-based school improvement too happen" (p. 407). Through the creation of an Action Research Group, led by a deputy principal, the leadership of Denbigh School was able to give the control over teacher learning, providing them the autonomy needed to create the intrinsic motivation required for true staff improvement (p.408). Handing over the reins to teachers, providing them with time embedded throughout the year to develop professionally and linking their work to a university where they contribute to the learning of all teachers is an extremely powerful tool for PD.

Dealing with budgets and the organization of a school is an unenviable task. Balancing the financial needs of the public with the learning of teachers and students is important for the success of education as a whole. Teacher involvement in, and public understanding of, educational research is not at the level which it should be. Political leaders and teachers alike need to be aware of current educational research and its findings. For teachers, doing research appears to be even more beneficial than just reading about it. It is an effective way to enhance teacher learning and subsequently fostering lifelong learning. For our political leaders we need to call on them to fund education in a way that promotes significant student improvement.

References

Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (2000). A national plan for improving professional development. Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council.

Evans, M., Lomax, P. & Morgan, H. (November 2000). Closing the circle: Action research partnerships towards better learning. CambridgeJournal of Education 30 (3), 405-419.

Empathic Considerations for Instructional Leaders

It appears as though there is no direct link in the literature between empathy and instructional leadership. Despite this there is a theme that weaves itself through leadership, especially when pertaining to professional development and relationships. "The more principals were sought for professional and personal advice, and the more closely connected they were to their teachers, the more willing teachers were to invest in change and the creation of new knowledge and practices" (Moolenaar, Daly & Sleegers, 2010, p. 624). At the center of all positive relationships is a deep trust and caring. These develop over time as the two parties involved have shared experiences, effective communication and a high level of collegiality. As a primary component of the development of this trust, empathy allows an individual to feel what the other is feeling. "A leader with strong ethical values will be more motivated to support, develop, and assist subordinates, but to do this effectively the leader needs to understand their needs and feelings" (Mahsud, Yukl, and Prussia, 2010, p.566). If we do not recognize individual needs and feelings, there is a danger of decreased motivation to improve, a lower level of mastery and a lack of purpose in improvement efforts.
Understanding the feelings of others enables a leader to provide graceful feedback. During conferencing for professional improvement, Blasé and Blasé (2004) identify the role that sincere caring, interest, and support play in ameliorating the possible negative effects of formal evaluation for teachers (p.39). The empathy that is displayed during the conference allows the teacher to step out of their box as there is an enhanced level of trust between the principal and teacher.
Another area of professional development that involves empathy is that of encouraging reflection, ". . . a higher-order skill capable of producing large effects on classroom instruction and student learning" (Blasé and Balse, 2004, p.101). The process of reflection requires courage to help uncover the complex nature of teaching. The groundwork of courage is based on a trusting relationship between the principal and the teacher. This trust is a result of the ability of the principal to see the full context, understanding that the teacher is placing themselves in a vulnerable position. Acknowledging this with the teacher allows them to feel safe in this risk taking endeavour.
Visibility of a principal within a school is a primary skill that is required for the promotion of sound pedagogy. Their presence is that of a supportive role. In these times of informal interactions, there is a great opportunity to get a feel of what is going on in a classroom and in the school. "A principal who is close to staff may have a greater opportunity to collectively share and develop the school's vision as well as provide timely access to the resources necessary in realizing that vision" (Moolenaar, Daly, & Sleegers, 2010, p.656). There may be times when the principal encounters a situation which requires an empathic response. By recognizing issues in a proactive way, there is a reduction in the stress of teachers. Trusting relationships are formed. When the time arises, more candid conversations may be possible. "Empathy is the ability to recognize and understand the emotions and feelings of others, and this interpersonal skill can make it easier to develop a cooperative relationship of mutual trust with a subordinate" (Mahsud, Prussia, Yukl, 2010, pp. 562-563). Creating a culture of trust is equivalent to enhancing compassion, fostering dependability, embracing frankness and subsequently leading to greater collaboration.
At the heart of the different aspects of promoting professional improvement is that of communication. Communicating with others requires an ethic of care. "The leader must take the time to listen carefully to subordinates and ask questions that provide insight about career aspirations and job attitudes. A leader who is unable or unwilling to understand and appreciate the feelings and attitudes of subordinates is unlikely to devote much time to such discussions. Thus, leaders with strong ethical values are likely to engage more in activities that facilitate understanding and also reveal their empathy" (Mahsud et al., 2010, p.566). Presence is a key ingredient of empathic listening. We must be wholly present with the other party and attune to what they are experiencing. It is a result of this listening that a leader is able to aid another in their drive for improvement.
Despite the fact that there is no direct relationship in the literature between empathy and instructional leadership, I would like to suggest that there is a deep connection. Empathy lies at the foundation of the development of trust, a common vision and the effective communication of that vision. Empathic leaders promote learning within their building by recognizing the needs and feelings of others. They create a supportive environment which fosters reflection and risk taking. It becomes clear that being aware of your empathic maturity and through an intentional development of it one will become a more successful instructional leader.

 

 

References

Blasé, J., Blasé, J. (2004). Handbook of instructional leadership: How successful principals promote teaching and learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Mahsud, R., Yukl, G., Prussia, G. (2010). Leader empathy, ethical leadership, and relations-oriented behaviours antecedents of leader-member exchange quality. Journal of Managerial Psychology 25(6), 561-577.
Moolenaar, N., Daly, A., Sleegers, P. (2010). Occupying the principal position: Examining relationships between transformational leadership, social network position and schools' innovative climate. Educational Administration Quarterly 46(5), 623-670.

Instructional Considerations and Empathy Development

Developing the skills necessary to function in a postmodern world is the primary function of public education. Reflection on the instructional practices and the approaches to professional development for educators must contain an awareness of empathy. Empathy is linked directly to academic success for students and a component of positive social relations. Educational leaders need to enhance their own empathic development, bring it to a heightened awareness for the purpose of foster trusting relationships, creating an inclusive environment for learning and obtaining alignment of a common vision. Where does one begin and through what practices can we accomplish this realization?
Within a classroom setting there are two areas where we can definitely foster the empathic development of our students. These would include the methods of discipline that we choose and the connections that exist at a curricular level. In considering choices of discipline methods imposing negative reinforcement or corporal punishment on a child will likely lead to a decrease in empathic development. The opportunity to reflect on the feelings of others is not addressed through these approaches but a negative feeling is generated one of fear or anger and resentment.
Ramaswamy and Bergin (2009) identify two discipline strategies that have been found to enhance prosocial behaviour; positive reinforcement and induction (p. 528). Induction involves a script, where one highlights the hurt person's perspective in a given situation, draw attention to the effect that it has had on this individual (usually some sort of distress) and make the child understand that they caused the hurt. This leads to a feeling of "guilt and remorse and a sincere effort to want to make reparation" (Rifkin, 2009, p.118). Ramaswamy and Bergin (2009) have found that induction by itself was a method of discipline that nearly tripled prosocial behaviours when compared to control groups (p.535). Positive reinforcement is founded on a behaviourist approach to discipline. At the center of its philosophy is that a positive consequence is provided directly following a prosocial behaviour. Depending on the reinforcement, like a sticker or a pat on the back, there could be a drop in the intrinsic motivation of the child. Positive reinforcement can effectively promote prosocial behaviour but it does not provide an opportunity for the child to reflect on the feelings of others.
With the knowledge that prosocial behaviour is linked directly to academic achievement, teachers and administrators alike need to evaluate the mode of discipline that use with their students. Our focus when addressing student behaviour needs to be that of induction, bringing to light the impact that an individual's actions have on others. This applies at all levels of schooling from preschool to grade twelve.
Discipline needs to be thought of as an opportunity for the development of character. Too often our own emotions get in the way of effectively dealing with a situation. In an effort to manage these emotions in a cognitive way here are four considerations to help you deal with issues of discipline effectively; provide yourself space to cool down, recognize that this is not a personal reflection on you, acknowledge that you cannot know the entire context and assume that there is an innate goodness in all. There will be other highly emotional situations where our communication and listening skills will be tested. "The key ingredient of empathy is presence: we are wholly present with the other party and what they are experiencing" (Wesley, 2004, p.41). In dealing with an overtly defiant individual, provide them time to cool down, verbally acknowledge how they are feeling, and restate information that they are providing to you to ensure that there is clear communication. Wesley (2004) highlights the role that empathic listening plays in difficult situations where "[t]he more highly charged the situation, the more we need to remember the paradox of control and give up the temptation to control by our own speaking" (p. 41).
In addition to considerations of discipline in the development of empathy there is a need to recognize that it is at the core of understanding. "Educators, in particular, need to be encouraged to respect what many of them know intuitively - that students' motivations and feelings about learning are just as important as the content of their learning" (Arnold, 2005, p. 19). As teachers presenting information, there is a need to generate a positive feeling about the learning experience and being able to read the experience of others. Educators need to be able to sense the feelings of individuals that are in front of them. Often this is not communicated directly but through nonverbal ways, the emotional skill of empathy allows us to gather this information.
The curriculum itself needs to be presented in a way that allows students to recognize the shared responsibilities for the entire plant. Educational activities could range from discussions of impact on the environment to the creation of service projects from the school to the entire global community. It goes beyond creating awareness to a movement of action oriented learning events allowing students to connect with the greater community. "Empathic skills emphasize a non-judgmental orientation and tolerance of other perspectives, they accustom young people to think in terms of layers of complexity and force them to live within a context of ambiguous realities where there are no simple formulas or answers, but only a constant search for shared meaning and a common understanding" (Rifkin, 2009, p. 15-16). It is a result of these educational experiences, the ones that are intentionally designed to foster empathy that our citizens will become those that we as a society need.

 

References

Arnold, R. (2005). Empathic intelligence: Teaching, learning, relating. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press Ltd.
Ramaswamy, V., Bergin, C. (2009). Do reinforcement and induction increase prosocial behavior? Results of a teacher-based intervention in preschools. Journal of research in Childhood Education. 23(4), 527-538
Rifkin, J. (2009). The empathic civilization; The race to global consciousness in a world in crisis. New York, NY: Tarcher/ Pengiun.
Wesley, D. (2004). Just listen. Principal Leadership (High School Ed.), 5(3), 39-41