Effective Professional Development

There is no question of the importance of professional development and its impact on teacher and student learning. The following is a presentation that I made with two colleagues on it's implications, the characteristics of effective professional development and three types: PLCs, peer coaching and action research.

Effective Professional Development for Teaching and Learning on Prezi

Continuity of the Reggio Emilia Approach to Education through Documentation

Being a teacher whose setting is the high school context attending a conference that is specifically focused on the elementary context initially posed a challenge for me, specifically connecting Reggio Emilia to my work. There are a number of aspects of the Reggio Emilia philosophy which are challenging to apply to the classroom of a high school. The content driven, high accountability testing environment of the secondary classroom is not conducive to the student centred inquiry education style of Reggio Emilia. Faced with the question of continuity, how can educators of the higher grade levels apply the Reggio Emilia approach? One aspect that stands out is that of documentation. Jaruszewicz (2006) recounts the transformative experience of using visual documentation of student learning within the context of a college teacher preparation program and the impact of her experience on her own teaching. "My original goal had been for the students to learn about curriculum. But I had encountered something entirely new related to teaching, learning and myself; only I did not know what it was" (p. 360). Documentation, I feel, is the transformational "in" for the Reggio Emilia philosophy.

The Reggio Emilia approach to learning offers a new understanding of the role of documentation in education. As described by Tizianna Filippini, Coordinator of the Documentation and Educational Research Centre of Reggio Emilia, "[d]ocumentation is not just a technical tool, but an attitude towards teaching and learning" (Turner & Wilson, 2010, p. 6). Documentation is about making learning visible, allowing others to see the learning process. Often it is not the learning process that is captured by teachers through standard practice of documentation. The documentation that Reggio Emilia promotes is that which allows all to gather an understanding of the learning that has taken place, making visible the process. ."Requiring students to document their own learning challenges them not only to selectively identify what is meaningful to them and how they learned it, but to consider and make subsequent decisions about how to communicate what children are learning, from a more sophisticated, layered orientation" (Jaruszewicz, 2006, p. 371). This is not captured in a simple pen or pencil test which provides a superficial snap shot of learning.

It is enlightening to know that documentation has been used with high levels of education and provides lessons for the future. Soble and Hogue (2010) in their exploration of the challenge of documentation in a high school highlight two key lessons on documentation: "1. Documentation is essentially about developing a pedagogy of listening, regardless of what the documentation looks like or how it is displayed. . . 2. Documentation is first for the learners. Although there are several potential audiences for documentation, the group of learners with whom I am working directly is the one most important to me." (p. 50). Soble et al. (2010) touch on one of the most difficult aspects of documentation, that of its practicality.

Supporting this problem is the program Project Zero out of Harvard University. One project specifically, Making Learning Visible, "draws attention to the power of the group as a learning environment and documentation as a way to see and shape how and what children are learning" (Making Learning Visible, 2010). In supporting the impact making learning visible through documentation has Stephanie Suarez (2006) highlights a comment from one of the participants in her study, "[w]hat I found was the most powerful learning I had ever experienced in a graduate seminar for pre-service teachers. I found that by making our learning visible, we created a collective body of knowledge. I found that our 'collective learning' may be even broader than our 'individual learning'" (p. 35). Tapping into such a resource provides inspiration and enlightenment for those who would like to tackle the problem of continuity.

References

Jaruszewicz, C. (2006). Opening windows on teaching and learning: Transformative and emancipatory learning precipitated by experimenting with visual documentation of student learning. Educational Action Research, 14(3), 357-375.

Making Learning Visible. (2010) Understanding, documenting and supporting individual and group learning. Retrieved from http://www.pzweb.harvard.edu/mlv.

Soble, J. and Hogue, J. (2010). From display to documentation to discourse: The challenge of documentation in a high school. Theory Into Practice, 49(1), 47-55.

Suarez. S. C. (2006). Making learning visible through documentation: creating a culture of inquiry amoung pre-service teachers. The New Educator, 2, 33-55: doi: 10.1080/15476880500486129.

Turner, T. and Wilson, D. G. (2010). Reflections on documentation: a discussion with thought leaders from Reggio Emilia. Theory Into Practice, 49(1) 5-13.

Documentation: A Potentially Transformational Approach to Systemic Change in Education

Faced with the reality of the current industrial style educational system, working within a high accountability framework of standardized testing, the question arises, is this a sustainable approach to education? In describing sustainable leadership Any Hargreaves (2009) states that sustainable leadership creates and preserves sustaining learning. He goes further to define sustaining learning as "learning that matters, that is deep and lasts" (p. 187). Learning that takes place in a context that of high stakes test is arguably learning that does not matter. It is a type of learning that perpetuates the systemic ideals and values as opposed to developing the critical thinking skills that are needed to participate as a citizen in a democratic society. In his essay on cultivating the moral character of learning, Robert Starratt (2005) supports this view stating that "test-fixated learning promotes an unethical type of learning. This type of learning is inauthentic and irresponsible; it promotes an attitude where the integrity of the worlds represented by the academic subjects is of no importance outside of its instrumentality in providing decontextualized right answers to someone else's questions" (p. 402). Clearly there is a call to move away from the high stakes testing framework that ranks different institutions of learning or worse penalizes the school for poor performance.

In an effort to appeal to the need for the public to have a way to ensure that their dollars are being used wisely for the purpose of educating the next generation of tax payers what are the alternatives to these high stakes tests? Hargreaves (2009) calls on school leadership to become activists and engage with their current environment. What would this engagement look like? Being inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach to education, there are three areas that need to be considered.

Firstly, the Reggio Emilia approach to learning calls for a new way to document the learning of the child. Documentation is about making learning visible, allowing others to see the learning process. This is not captured in a simple pen or pencil test which provides a superficial snap shot of learning. As described by Tizianna Filippini, Coordinator of the Documentation and Educational Research Centre of Reggio Emilia, "[d]ocumentation is not just a technical tool, but an attitude towards teaching and learning" (Turner & Wilson, 2010, p. 6). It is through this documentation process that learning could be shared with policy makers. Enlightening these people about alternative ways of documenting learning is one of the key elements of systemic reform for education.

Secondly, there is a need to bring parents into the school. Parents will need to be informed of the other ways that students can display their learning. The Reggio Emilia philosophy calls for collaboration amoung teachers, children and teachers, children and parents, children and children and the larger community (Fraser & Gestwick, 2002, p. 11). There is the desire to have the parents view and understand documentation and how it displays the learning of their child. Getting parents on board, understanding an alternative to standardized tests in a key component to changing education into the authentic experience we are morally obligated to provide for children.

Finally, there needs to be a shift in the higher institutes of learning to accept alternative ways for demonstrating proficient levels of learning. Institutions like Colleges and Universities perpetuate the systemic structure of education through their entrance requirements. These institutions of learning need to consider the possibility of alternative methods to determining admission. Given the high stakes nature of acceptance into a post-secondary institutions, the social capital and the earning potential that it represents, parents are insistent that their child be provided an educational experience that maximizes the chances of gaining entrance.

As educational leaders inspired by the Reggio approach to education, hearing the call for change from the experts and thinkers in the field of educational leadership we need to become the maverick leaders that Hargreaves (2009) calls us to be. We have a responsibility as educational leaders to look for " transformational teaching and learning that connect academic learning to students' personal experiences and aspirations, so that students are changed by what they learn into deeper, richer human beings who want to use their learning to make the world a better place" (Starratt, 2005, p. 130). The Reggio Emilia philosophy and its approach to education provide an inspiring and potentially transformational option for changing an entrenched modern system.

References

Fraser, S., & Gestwick,i C. (2002). Authentic childhood: Exploring Reggio Emilia in the classroom. Albany, NY: Delmar- Thomson Learning.

Hargreaves, A. (2009). Sustainable leadership. In B. Davies (Ed.), The essentials of school leadership (pp. 53-73). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Starratt, R. J. (2005). Cultivating the moral character of learning and teaching: a neglected dimension of educational leadership. School and Leadership Management, 25(4), 399-411.

Starratt, R. J. (2005). Responible leadership essays. The Educational Forum, 69(4), 124-133.

Turner, T. and Wilson, D. G. (2010). Reflections on documentation: a discussion with thought leaders from Reggio Emilia. Theory into practice, 49(1) 5-13.

Get Inspired about the Future of Education: Reggio Emilia

If you have not heard about Reggio Emilia and their philosophical approach to teaching and learning, you need to be aware. Having spent the last weekend participating in a conference titled "Journey of Possibilities: Reggio Inspirations in Elementary Contexts", there was an anxiousness created within me that is pushing me to share. Through the conference I was inspired by Paola Cagliari, Director of Preschools and Infant toddler centres from Reggio Emilia; Lella Gandini, U.S. Liaison for Reggio Children; Harold Gothson, Senior Consultant for Reggio Emilia Institute from Stockholm, Sweden; and Mara Krechevsky from Project Zero at Harvard University. It is through these individuals that I have gained a better understanding of education and the approaches we should be using. There is a fundamental switch that is embodied by the Reggio Emilia approach to educating young people. It started as an approach that was to be used within an early learning context but as Mara Krechevsky has found, it possess universal qualities for all levels of learning, pre-school age to adult.

The history of the development of the Reggio Emilia approach to learning is a grass roots event. My understanding is that post Second World War the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy was at a rebuilding point. Given a meagre amount of resources and upon the sale of left over relics from the war, the community was faced with a decision in what to do with the money. The community as a whole felt that it was most important for the future success of the community to use the funds to develop a pre-school. This was not just any pre-school; its focus was the development of democratic citizens for Italy. A ground up movement, the philosophy of education was unlike anything that was taking place in Italy at the time.

Today people from around the world are grappling with the implications of the Reggio Emilia approach to education. This approach provides the learner with the chance to develop their authentic self as opposed to the voice of a system as Robert Starratt (2010) refers to in his book Refocusing School Leadership. Fraser and Gestwick (2002) highlight the principles at the heart of the approach to learning including: the image of the child (competent, strong, inventive, and full of ideas); environment as teacher (designing an environment that facilitates learning); relationships (with the environment, the people in that environment, and its involvement in the co-construction of knowledge); collaboration (amoung teachers, children and teachers, children and parents, children and children and the larger community); documentation (a verbal and visual trace of the experiences and work and opportunities to revisit, reflect and interpret); progettazione (making flexible plans for the further investigation of ideas and devising a way to carry them out); provocation (listening closely to children and devising a means for provoking further action and thought); one hundred languages of children (making symbolic representations of ideas and doing so through a number of different media; and transparency ( using light as a symbol of the openness to ideas and theories from other parts of the world) ( p. 11).

Learning as viewed through the lens of Reggio Emilia and its philosophy can be simplified to the basic formula of "adult + child + context = learning". Note that the adult in this formula could be any individual that is involved in that child's life. It is the role of the adult to provide space for a child's learning. There is also an acknowledgement of the role of context in the learning process. Schools of the future must play the role of citizen houses where students can form their own opinions and not those that the system perpetuates. Often we as adults can get in the way of learning and this is evident in the high level of dissatisfaction that can be seen particularly in the high school context. Learners are reduced to cattle that are to be herded through an education system that favours the development of an inauthentic learning experience which can be reduced to a superficial understanding that is brought on by the demands of a high accountability framework based on standardized assessment.

Reggio Emilia and its philosophy is not something that you define yourself as. Unlike the approach that is found in the Montessori School's, Reggio does not have a defined curriculum. Educators will find in Reggio an inspiration to change their approach to education. It provides you the opportunity to reflect on your beliefs of what good education looks like. For those of us who struggle with what the new postmodern approach to education should look like, Reggio Emilia provides insight. The approach involves students as researchers and our job as educators is to provide stimulation in questioning, in documenting the process and participation as a learner ourselves.

Are we breeding through didactic instruction a group of learners that will lead to a passive society? I think so, but I whole heartedly feel that the inspiration that Reggio Emilia provides will be the future's response.

References

Fraser, S. , Gestwick,i C. (2002). Authentic childhood: Exploring Reggio Emilia in the classroom. Albany, NY: Delmar- Thomson Learning.

Starratt, R. J. (2010). Refocusing school leadership. New York: Routledge.

For those that are interested I have included websites that Mara Krechevsky included during her keynote address. They are related to project zero, a Reggio inspired project for the North American context.

Project Zero; http://www.pz.harvard.edu/

Visible Thinking; http://www.pzweb.harvard.edu/vt/; specifically look for thinking routines

Making Learning Visible: http://www.pzweb.harvard.edu/mlv/ Resources: http://www.makinglearningvisibleresources.org/

School Reform Initiative: http://schoolreforminitiative.org/ specifically look at the protocols that are listed

How to Sustain Professional Development: Key Issues Identified in the Literature

Sustaining professional development is a complex task requiring an extensive amount of lead work, organizational planning and an investment in time developing and fostering relationships. Scott (2010) highlights the difficulty in "establishing sound, systematic, and sustainable professional development" (p. 12) despite what we would perceive as low barrier contexts, specifically focusing on two case studies; one out of Australia and another out of Canada. Schwahn and Spady (1998) identify five reasons why productive change does not happen despite a compelling organizational purpose. These reasons include: the system's statements of values, mission, outcomes and vision are not clear, concise, discriminating nor inspirational; stakeholders are not invited to participate in setting the organizational direction; the values, missions, outcomes and visions were not implemented immediately following their development; structures within the organization have not been aligned with the new vision; and support from the system in implementing the change is not sufficient (pp. 45-47). Lieberman and Miller (2005) acknowledge that "[c]hange is always accompanied by conflict, disequilibrium, and confusion" (p.161). Faced with these barriers to change how can educators move an organizations professional development philosophy from that of an isolated, self-centered ideology to one which Darling- Hammond and McLaughlin (1995) refer to as "a life-long, inquiry-based, and collegial activity" (p,598).
There are numerous insights throughout the literature which help us move from theory into practice with the goal to sustain professional development. We are obligated to critically re-evaluate "existing policies and practices in light of their alignment with a learner-centered view of teaching and a career long conception of teachers' learning" (Darling- Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995, p. 601). It is essential that we have a clear understanding of what peer collaboration looks like (Blase & Blase, 2004; Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Musanti & Pence, 2010; Scott 2010). Additionally, organizational structures must support the development of teacher leaders (Blase & Blase, 2004; Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Elmore, 2006; Lieberman and Miller, 2005). Further to that leadership must learn to let go as a form of capacity building resulting in the empowerment of teachers (Blase & Blase, 2004; Slater, 2008). Using these insights we have the potential to create sustainable professional development.
There is no doubt that in every school there is the presence of teacher leaders. These individuals are a cornerstone in the development of effective practice of their colleagues. In their paper on teachers as leaders, Lieberman and Miller (2005) highlight the a number of key characteristics of these individuals stating the teacher leaders: inquire into their own practice; share their practice with others in a public way; invent opportunities to lead and maintain connections to classroom practice; learn to lead in communities of practice that are collegial and support risk taking; create safe environments for professional learning for all with whom they work; are sensitive to context and culture; and they help to create an environment for learning that has influence throughout the school community (p. 161). Recognizing and then further supporting these individuals within your building is a first step in ensuring improved learning for everyone.
There is a smorgasbord when it comes to the vision of effective peer collaboration. Personally I have taught in a high school where the barriers that prevent collaboration, such as group think and the balkanization of school culture, remain entrenched. Scott (2010) calls for improvements in peer collaboration stating that "school leaders must consider effective teacher professional development processes that include a problem-solving orientation; collegial discussions and reflection; shared planning and resource development; peer observation and feedback; and skill and strategy exploration and adoption" (p. 15). Additionally, Blase and Blase (2004) provide some more practical advice for the principal in an effort to promote peer collaboration. Different actions they highlight involve a principal: having positive perceptions of teachers' capabilities; balancing the delicate interaction between support and pressure by letting go of traditional role expectations and also by encouraging teachers to take on new roles; developing shared vision and values; supporting shared decision making; promoting continuous learning; engaging all teachers and administrators in collaborative reflection, inquiry, problem solving, learning, and teaching; and providing regular opportunities to learn and grow (p. 184). Guided by their vision of what peer collaboration looks like and actions to support it, leaders of learning communities can promote sustainable professional development.
In my experience it is common for organizational structures to hinder the sustaining of effective professional development. The physical placement of teachers, the organization of timetables and the professional development itself is not supportive of teacher learning for best practice. Often providing the time to support collegial interactions in the development of curriculum and the evaluation of pedagogy aligned with the goal of improved student outcomes is lacking in the overall plan. Educational leaders are called to move past the managerial duties of running their school and meet their responsibility as leader who is called to "ensure that the structures and procedures that support and channel the learning process" (Starratt, 2005, p. 132). Scott (2010) highlights the role that technology could play in providing opportunities, removing the physical barriers to collaboration. "For technology-facilitated collegial networks to be successful however, teachers would need to have sufficient technology efficacy to be able to engage and be comfortable with the new media" (Scott, 2010, p. 10). Restructuring or providing opportunities through technology offer a potential way to help sustain professional growth.
There is a call for leadership to align policy, practice and organizational structures with a vision of teaching for understanding. Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (1995) suggest design principles to guide teachers' professional development in overcoming the chief obstacle for policy makers' implementing systemic reform by "consider[ing] aspects of the larger educational policy context that foster or impede teachers' incentives and ability to acquire new knowledge, skills, and conceptions of practice (p. 598). Policies that are currently in place that hinder an authentic learning experience would include the implementation of standardized testing. This type of policy yokes the teacher to a test driven pedagogy denying the opportunity for a sense of professionalism which exudes a teaching for understanding.
Sustaining professional development involves supporting teacher leaders and peer collaboration. Leaders must evaluate and adjust organizational structures and systemic policies as well as empower teachers to move educators to a vision of teaching for understanding. Despite a gap between the theory and practice that Scott (2010) refers to, there is the potential for change. Given an understanding of what sustainable professional development looks like leaders need to take the next step, putting theory into practice.

References

Blase, J. & Blase, J. (2004). Handbook of Instructional Leadership: How Successful Principals Promote Teaching and Learning (2^nd. Ed. Paperback). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Darling-Hammond, L., & McLaughlin, M. (1995). Policies that support professional development in an era of reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(8), 597-604.

Elmore, R. (2006). Leadership as the practice of improvement. Paper presented at International Conference: International perspectives on School Leadership for Systemic Improvement. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/2/9/37133273.pdf.

Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (2005). Teachers as leaders. The Educational Forum, 69(2), 151-162.

Musanti, S. & Pence, L. (2010). Collaboration and teacher development: Unpacking resistance, constructing knowledge and navigating identities. Teacher Education Quarterly, 37(1), 73-89.

Schwahn, C., & Spady, W. (1998). Why change doesn't happen and how to make sure it does. Educational Leadership, 55(7), 45-47.

Scott, S. (2010). The theory and practice divide in relation to teacher professional development. In J. O. Lindberg & A. D. Olofsson (Eds.), Online learning communities and teacher professional development: Methods for improved education delivery (pp. 20-40). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Slater, L. (2008). Pathways to building leadership capacity, Educational Management, Administration and Leadership, 36 (1), 55-69.

Starratt, R. J. (2005). Responible leadership essays. The Educational Forum, 69(4), 124-133.

Evaluation: Sound Practice for Professional Development and Student Learning

There is a common theme with regards to the need for effective instruction and professional development. In their article highlighting a research study supporting the effectiveness of professional development, Birman, Desimone, Porter, and Garet (2000) state ". . . it is essential that staff development provide the content and opportunities necessary to foster teacher learning and changes in practice" (p. 32). In light of instructional leadership on the part of teachers, Dick and Carey (2001) state that "[i]t is our thesis that the primary role of the teacher is that of designer of instruction, with accompanying roles of implementor and evaluator of instruction. This is a critical statement to consider. If education is to meet the needs of individual students through provision of appropriate knowledge and training in important skills, there must be increased dependence upon well-designed, effective instruction (p. 73). There repeated call for well-designed and effective professional development for teachers in addition to student learning opportunities.
Evaluation is a cornerstone in education. It informs us of potential issues in the future, how we are doing currently and how effective our learning experience was. According to Guskey (1999) in his paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association where he explores the evaluation process of professional development evaluation is defined as the examination of evidence and the application of judgment in a systematic investigation of merit and worth (p. 3). There is an obvious connection between the systematic design for instruction and effective professional development programs.
Guskey (1999) identifies three broad categories of evaluation including: planning, formative and summative (p. 4). Planning refers to an evaluation that takes place prior to the professional development activity. He highlights four aspects in this evaluation process including: identification of needs, assessing the characteristics of the participants, analysis of the context and the collection of related baseline information (p. 4). It is difficult not to draw the parallels that exist between Guskey's (1999) work with Dick and Carey's (2001) model of instructional design. Referring to their instructional model below, these four aspects are explicitly identified by Dick and Carey in their first three steps of a nine step design process for instruction.

Continuing the comparison, formative evaluation, according to Guskey (1999) is an evaluation that occurs throughout the process. Dick and Carey (2005) include formative evaluation in their instructional model and state that "[formative] evaluation provides the designer with a different type of information that can be used to improve the instruction" (p. 16). Guskey (1999) supports this by identifying formative evaluation as the most useful form of assessment as it is focused on the conditions necessary for success. It happens throughout the activity it usually provides the opportunity to make adjustments, modifications or revisions throughout (pp. 5-6). There appears to be a common belief between these individuals that formative assessments can inform and aid in the revision of instruction whether it is for teachers or students. It is integral and key to effective design.
Another commonality is that of the presence of a summative evaluation. Summative evaluations happen after the learning has occurred and it provides feedback about the effectiveness of the activity. Guskey (1999) indicates its role in the evaluation process of professional development, allowing for judgments of the overall worth or merit of the professional activity. The summative evaluation provides the opportunity for decisions regarding the life of the program or activity (pp. 6-7). In contrast, Dick and Carey (2005) have the summative evaluation as a separate component of the design for learning and do not consider it an integral part of the design process.

Clearly the three aspects of evaluation, planning, formative and summative are regarded as integral to effective instruction both for teachers and students.

References

Birman, B. F., Desimone, L., Poter, A. C., & Garet, M. S. (2000). Designing professional development that works. Educational Leadership(May), 28-33.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (2001). The systematic design of instruction: Origins of systematically designed instruction. In D.P Ely & T. Plomp (Eds), Classical writings on instructional technology (vol. 2., pp. 71-80). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. (2005). The systematic design of instruction: (sixth edition). Boston, M.A : Pearson/ Allyn & Bacon.

 

Guskey, T. R. (1999). New perspectives on evaluating professional development. In the American Educational Research Association. Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Teachers and Educational Research- Promoting Staff Development

It is that time of year again, the same doom and gloom of the budget. Ballooning class sizes is the new way to deal with the budget constraints that have been placed on school leadership. How does one deal with this, how about teach 7 out of 8 classes? Sound familiar? I know that there are a number of teachers in the province that do this on a yearly basis. My question is at what expense? There is a clear statement in the literature to ensure effective performance of students in the classroom there needs to be effective teaching. How does one bring about effective teaching? Through the provision of ongoing professional development teaching practice is improved and thus student learning.

In their comprehensive review of the state of professional development in America, Sparks and Hirsh (2000), list a number of standards and guidelines that the National Staff Development Council states that they feel school systems should use including; setting high standards for the learning of all students, invest in teacher learning, embed opportunities for professional learning to name but a few (pp. 5-6). They also state that the NSDC promotes "at least 25 percent of teachers' time be devoted to their own learning" (p. 6). My question to those in power, controlling the funding for education, when do educators do this professional development that is highly recommended for enhanced teaching when individuals are teaching 7 out of 8 classes? Teaching without preparation time, would for me personally be reason enough for me to switch careers. I know that if I am not provided this time, I cannot do the best possible job for those kids in front of me. I have a moral obligation to bring my best for these kids and yet the system in which we work is not conducive to that. Where is the foresight on the part of political leadership? Are we not informed enough about sound education?

Sparks and Hirsh (2000) highlight the fact that teachers are not in the loop as they are often unaware of current research findings. "Staff development should be grounded in solid research, not only to convey the best teaching methods and appropriate curriculum content, but also to help school staff understand the process of change and how to work collaboratively to solve problems, alter the school's culture, and build structures that support teacher learning" (p. 8). If our teachers are not in the loop I would propose that our political leaders are even further out of the loop as evidenced by the priorities they set with their budgetary choices. The question arises as to how we as educators and future leaders in education bring this to everyone's attention? Spark and Hirsh (2000)propose the establishment of a National Centre on Professional Development to collect, filter and distribute information on professional development while States (or provinces) could be responsible for ensuring that there are adequate resources (ie. new teachers with mentors, increasing funding and time for quality staff development and monitor how the funds are spent). This information would need to be monitored by the provincial government, specifically the department responsible for education. Clearly there is a need to have education become a priority for our leaders in order for professional development to take its appropriate place.

Are there things that we can do at a local level that can promote the teacher learning that we so need? Can we do more with less? Spark and Hirsh (2000) outline a number of strategies that we can do at a local level in an effort to create a learning school: 1. Allow more time for staff to work and plan together, 2. Provide common planning time so teachers can study standards together, create lessons and practice and share new teaching methods, 3. Organize a time for sets of teachers who share common students to meet and discuss student issues, 4. Assign new and struggling teachers with a mentor (preferably with a common time to meet throughout the day), 5.Provide opportunities for peer observation, 6. Organize programs of peer coaching where teachers could help each other (p.11). In light of these suggestions, local school leadership have a difficult task (but worthy of the effort) in organizing their schools for staff learning.

"Missing from the field of research on teaching, . . ., are the voices of teachers themselves, the questions teachers ask and the interpretive frames that teachers use to understand and improve classroom practices" (Evans, Lomax and Morgan, 2000, p. 416). As an alternative to the common way of providing professional development, (one shot workshops, two day conferences) there is evidence of establishing an action research program with a staff as an effective way to enhance teacher learning. In writing about a school-university partnership that has led to the establishment of a community of teacher researchers whose investigations provide the evidence upon which they make decisions to improve their teaching, Evans, Lomax and Morgan (2000), state that ". . . action research partnerships between schools and universities [are an] effective way for research-based school improvement too happen" (p. 407). Through the creation of an Action Research Group, led by a deputy principal, the leadership of Denbigh School was able to give the control over teacher learning, providing them the autonomy needed to create the intrinsic motivation required for true staff improvement (p.408). Handing over the reins to teachers, providing them with time embedded throughout the year to develop professionally and linking their work to a university where they contribute to the learning of all teachers is an extremely powerful tool for PD.

Dealing with budgets and the organization of a school is an unenviable task. Balancing the financial needs of the public with the learning of teachers and students is important for the success of education as a whole. Teacher involvement in, and public understanding of, educational research is not at the level which it should be. Political leaders and teachers alike need to be aware of current educational research and its findings. For teachers, doing research appears to be even more beneficial than just reading about it. It is an effective way to enhance teacher learning and subsequently fostering lifelong learning. For our political leaders we need to call on them to fund education in a way that promotes significant student improvement.

References

Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (2000). A national plan for improving professional development. Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council.

Evans, M., Lomax, P. & Morgan, H. (November 2000). Closing the circle: Action research partnerships towards better learning. CambridgeJournal of Education 30 (3), 405-419.

Empathic Considerations for Instructional Leaders

It appears as though there is no direct link in the literature between empathy and instructional leadership. Despite this there is a theme that weaves itself through leadership, especially when pertaining to professional development and relationships. "The more principals were sought for professional and personal advice, and the more closely connected they were to their teachers, the more willing teachers were to invest in change and the creation of new knowledge and practices" (Moolenaar, Daly & Sleegers, 2010, p. 624). At the center of all positive relationships is a deep trust and caring. These develop over time as the two parties involved have shared experiences, effective communication and a high level of collegiality. As a primary component of the development of this trust, empathy allows an individual to feel what the other is feeling. "A leader with strong ethical values will be more motivated to support, develop, and assist subordinates, but to do this effectively the leader needs to understand their needs and feelings" (Mahsud, Yukl, and Prussia, 2010, p.566). If we do not recognize individual needs and feelings, there is a danger of decreased motivation to improve, a lower level of mastery and a lack of purpose in improvement efforts.
Understanding the feelings of others enables a leader to provide graceful feedback. During conferencing for professional improvement, Blasé and Blasé (2004) identify the role that sincere caring, interest, and support play in ameliorating the possible negative effects of formal evaluation for teachers (p.39). The empathy that is displayed during the conference allows the teacher to step out of their box as there is an enhanced level of trust between the principal and teacher.
Another area of professional development that involves empathy is that of encouraging reflection, ". . . a higher-order skill capable of producing large effects on classroom instruction and student learning" (Blasé and Balse, 2004, p.101). The process of reflection requires courage to help uncover the complex nature of teaching. The groundwork of courage is based on a trusting relationship between the principal and the teacher. This trust is a result of the ability of the principal to see the full context, understanding that the teacher is placing themselves in a vulnerable position. Acknowledging this with the teacher allows them to feel safe in this risk taking endeavour.
Visibility of a principal within a school is a primary skill that is required for the promotion of sound pedagogy. Their presence is that of a supportive role. In these times of informal interactions, there is a great opportunity to get a feel of what is going on in a classroom and in the school. "A principal who is close to staff may have a greater opportunity to collectively share and develop the school's vision as well as provide timely access to the resources necessary in realizing that vision" (Moolenaar, Daly, & Sleegers, 2010, p.656). There may be times when the principal encounters a situation which requires an empathic response. By recognizing issues in a proactive way, there is a reduction in the stress of teachers. Trusting relationships are formed. When the time arises, more candid conversations may be possible. "Empathy is the ability to recognize and understand the emotions and feelings of others, and this interpersonal skill can make it easier to develop a cooperative relationship of mutual trust with a subordinate" (Mahsud, Prussia, Yukl, 2010, pp. 562-563). Creating a culture of trust is equivalent to enhancing compassion, fostering dependability, embracing frankness and subsequently leading to greater collaboration.
At the heart of the different aspects of promoting professional improvement is that of communication. Communicating with others requires an ethic of care. "The leader must take the time to listen carefully to subordinates and ask questions that provide insight about career aspirations and job attitudes. A leader who is unable or unwilling to understand and appreciate the feelings and attitudes of subordinates is unlikely to devote much time to such discussions. Thus, leaders with strong ethical values are likely to engage more in activities that facilitate understanding and also reveal their empathy" (Mahsud et al., 2010, p.566). Presence is a key ingredient of empathic listening. We must be wholly present with the other party and attune to what they are experiencing. It is a result of this listening that a leader is able to aid another in their drive for improvement.
Despite the fact that there is no direct relationship in the literature between empathy and instructional leadership, I would like to suggest that there is a deep connection. Empathy lies at the foundation of the development of trust, a common vision and the effective communication of that vision. Empathic leaders promote learning within their building by recognizing the needs and feelings of others. They create a supportive environment which fosters reflection and risk taking. It becomes clear that being aware of your empathic maturity and through an intentional development of it one will become a more successful instructional leader.

 

 

References

Blasé, J., Blasé, J. (2004). Handbook of instructional leadership: How successful principals promote teaching and learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Mahsud, R., Yukl, G., Prussia, G. (2010). Leader empathy, ethical leadership, and relations-oriented behaviours antecedents of leader-member exchange quality. Journal of Managerial Psychology 25(6), 561-577.
Moolenaar, N., Daly, A., Sleegers, P. (2010). Occupying the principal position: Examining relationships between transformational leadership, social network position and schools' innovative climate. Educational Administration Quarterly 46(5), 623-670.

Instructional Considerations and Empathy Development

Developing the skills necessary to function in a postmodern world is the primary function of public education. Reflection on the instructional practices and the approaches to professional development for educators must contain an awareness of empathy. Empathy is linked directly to academic success for students and a component of positive social relations. Educational leaders need to enhance their own empathic development, bring it to a heightened awareness for the purpose of foster trusting relationships, creating an inclusive environment for learning and obtaining alignment of a common vision. Where does one begin and through what practices can we accomplish this realization?
Within a classroom setting there are two areas where we can definitely foster the empathic development of our students. These would include the methods of discipline that we choose and the connections that exist at a curricular level. In considering choices of discipline methods imposing negative reinforcement or corporal punishment on a child will likely lead to a decrease in empathic development. The opportunity to reflect on the feelings of others is not addressed through these approaches but a negative feeling is generated one of fear or anger and resentment.
Ramaswamy and Bergin (2009) identify two discipline strategies that have been found to enhance prosocial behaviour; positive reinforcement and induction (p. 528). Induction involves a script, where one highlights the hurt person's perspective in a given situation, draw attention to the effect that it has had on this individual (usually some sort of distress) and make the child understand that they caused the hurt. This leads to a feeling of "guilt and remorse and a sincere effort to want to make reparation" (Rifkin, 2009, p.118). Ramaswamy and Bergin (2009) have found that induction by itself was a method of discipline that nearly tripled prosocial behaviours when compared to control groups (p.535). Positive reinforcement is founded on a behaviourist approach to discipline. At the center of its philosophy is that a positive consequence is provided directly following a prosocial behaviour. Depending on the reinforcement, like a sticker or a pat on the back, there could be a drop in the intrinsic motivation of the child. Positive reinforcement can effectively promote prosocial behaviour but it does not provide an opportunity for the child to reflect on the feelings of others.
With the knowledge that prosocial behaviour is linked directly to academic achievement, teachers and administrators alike need to evaluate the mode of discipline that use with their students. Our focus when addressing student behaviour needs to be that of induction, bringing to light the impact that an individual's actions have on others. This applies at all levels of schooling from preschool to grade twelve.
Discipline needs to be thought of as an opportunity for the development of character. Too often our own emotions get in the way of effectively dealing with a situation. In an effort to manage these emotions in a cognitive way here are four considerations to help you deal with issues of discipline effectively; provide yourself space to cool down, recognize that this is not a personal reflection on you, acknowledge that you cannot know the entire context and assume that there is an innate goodness in all. There will be other highly emotional situations where our communication and listening skills will be tested. "The key ingredient of empathy is presence: we are wholly present with the other party and what they are experiencing" (Wesley, 2004, p.41). In dealing with an overtly defiant individual, provide them time to cool down, verbally acknowledge how they are feeling, and restate information that they are providing to you to ensure that there is clear communication. Wesley (2004) highlights the role that empathic listening plays in difficult situations where "[t]he more highly charged the situation, the more we need to remember the paradox of control and give up the temptation to control by our own speaking" (p. 41).
In addition to considerations of discipline in the development of empathy there is a need to recognize that it is at the core of understanding. "Educators, in particular, need to be encouraged to respect what many of them know intuitively - that students' motivations and feelings about learning are just as important as the content of their learning" (Arnold, 2005, p. 19). As teachers presenting information, there is a need to generate a positive feeling about the learning experience and being able to read the experience of others. Educators need to be able to sense the feelings of individuals that are in front of them. Often this is not communicated directly but through nonverbal ways, the emotional skill of empathy allows us to gather this information.
The curriculum itself needs to be presented in a way that allows students to recognize the shared responsibilities for the entire plant. Educational activities could range from discussions of impact on the environment to the creation of service projects from the school to the entire global community. It goes beyond creating awareness to a movement of action oriented learning events allowing students to connect with the greater community. "Empathic skills emphasize a non-judgmental orientation and tolerance of other perspectives, they accustom young people to think in terms of layers of complexity and force them to live within a context of ambiguous realities where there are no simple formulas or answers, but only a constant search for shared meaning and a common understanding" (Rifkin, 2009, p. 15-16). It is a result of these educational experiences, the ones that are intentionally designed to foster empathy that our citizens will become those that we as a society need.

 

References

Arnold, R. (2005). Empathic intelligence: Teaching, learning, relating. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press Ltd.
Ramaswamy, V., Bergin, C. (2009). Do reinforcement and induction increase prosocial behavior? Results of a teacher-based intervention in preschools. Journal of research in Childhood Education. 23(4), 527-538
Rifkin, J. (2009). The empathic civilization; The race to global consciousness in a world in crisis. New York, NY: Tarcher/ Pengiun.
Wesley, D. (2004). Just listen. Principal Leadership (High School Ed.), 5(3), 39-41

Empathy Development: Infant to Adult

The narrative within which we each participate is but a window of the relationships we have with others. It is through our conversations and the stories that we tell to each other that we try to gain an understanding of our world. Embedded in those conversations are the feelings and emotions of others. The contextual nature along with the emotional component becomes part of our own experience. This process of listening to others, acquiring information and trying to understand context lies at the core of our human experience. If not connected with others then we exist in a vacuum, void of stories and isolated. How do we connect with others? It is at our core to empathize with others, the heart of trust development. It is not fully developed when we arrive from the womb. Our parental up-bringing coupled with the experiences when have with other adults, through school, church and within the community help to bring us to an empathic maturity that we would not be able to arrive at on our own. What is empathy and how does it develop throughout our experience?
As many definitions do, it is important that we distinguish between the terms empathy and sympathy. Ciaramicoli and Ketcham (2000) explain, "Whereas sympathy seeks to console, empathy works to understand. Empathy requires a certain emotional distance- you have to step away from the grief, fear, and anger to create a space in which your thoughts can exert a calming influence on your feelings" (p.38). It is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. It is related to both experiencing another's joy and sorrow. Empathy is one component of emotional intelligence (EI). Emotional intelligence can be divided up into two broad categories, those that refer to interpersonal relationships and those of the intrapersonal nature. Salovey and Mayer (1990) categorized EI into five domains, the first three relating to the intrapersonal: 1) self-awareness, 2) managing emotions, 3) motivating oneself, and the last two relating to the interpersonal; 4) empathy and 5) handling relationships. EI is not a personality trait or a preferred way of behaving but is itself a set of abilities.
Empathy is a core nature of individuals for which there is both an affective and cognitive component as a part of their emotional intelligence. Hoffman (2000) writes of the affective side of empathy which " . . .seems like a simple concept- one feels what the other feels" (p. 30). As a child watches the experience of another child literally, through the activation of mirror neurons, there is a neurological emotional response that arises (Rifkin, 2009, p.85). The cognitive aspect of empathy is the processing and categorization of the emotions that are being experienced. This is furthered by Hoffman in his "key requirement of an empathic response . . . the involvement of psychological processes that make a person have feelings that are more congruent with another's situation than with his own situation" (p.30).
The development of the empathic drive happens throughout a person's life time. According to Hoffman (2000) there are five levels of development, three of which are preverbal; facial mimicry, classical conditioning, direct association and two which are verbal in nature; mediated association and role taking. As an infant, children will begin to read the facial expressions of others and be able to recognize their emotional state. Through a process of classical conditioning, as the mother and child begin to further bond there will be a time when the child is able to recognize the physical state of the mother and in turn experience that state (the mother is distressed and thus so is the infant). The final preverbal stage is that of direct association. As a child is of the age to recognize another person's plight, it conjures up a past experience and the accompanying emotions. There is an association of another's pain with feelings that the observer has experienced in the past. Moving to the verbal development of children, the next stage, mediated association, requires the ability of the individual to connect with an emotional situation that is communicated verbally. This stage combines both the affective and cognitive functions to create an empathic response. Finally the last stage of empathic development is that of role taking whereby an individual is able to image what it is like to be in another person's situation. Through the act of imagining there is an empathic response that is created and the feeling associated with that are real (pp. 38-62).
In terms of instructional leadership, an understanding of the development of empathy is extremely important. Empathy is a core component in the development of prosocial behaviour. (Hoffman, 2000) "Prosocial behaviour is any behaviour that benefits others, such as sharing, cooperating, including others in play, complementing and confronting others" (Ramaswamy & Bergin, 2009, p537). Prosocial behaviour predicts academic achievement and social adjustment in school.as academic achievement depends on positive relationships with teachers and peers, as well as active engagement in the classroom. With the realization of the implication of how empathy can affect performance in school, leaders of education must then ask the question, how we can promote its development.
Tied to the relationships we form with others, empathy's development is linked to the future achievement of learners and as Jeremy Rifkin would attest to the survival of humanity as a whole. Can empathy be taught in the classroom and on the playgrounds of our schools? I would have to say yes, though some schools and play grounds better than others. I personally feel that we are doing this already in a significant way. Through the selection of modes of discipline within schools, the increasing effort to provide a human purpose to the content we are learning through a universal design of curriculum and the implementation of service learning projects in schools we are using a number of strategies that are developing the empathic maturity of our students. It is through a purposeful awareness that we need to take the next step. I feel that is needs to be embedded in all that we do, not just for the student or the community but for humanity.

References

Ciaramicoli, A., Ketcham, K. (2000). The power of empathy: A practical guide to creating intimacy, self-understanding and lasting love. New York: Dutton Press.

Hoffman, M. (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Rifkin, J. (2009). The empathic civilization; The race to global consciousness in a world in crisis. New York, NY: Tarcher/ Pengiun.

Ramaswamy, V., Bergin, C. (2009). Do reinforcement and induction increase prosocial behavior? Results of a teacher-based intervention in preschools. Journal of research in Childhood Education. 23(4), 527-538

Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9, 185-211

Empathy and Educational Leadership

While driving home one night after a long day at work I was listening to one of my favourite CBC radio programs, "Ideas". That particular night I was listening to Jeremy Rifkin being interviewed on his new book the "The empathic civilization- A race to global consciousness in a world in crisis". Paul Kennedy, the host of the show, referred to the piece as a rare, serious book with big grand ideas. The interviewer asked Rifkin to recount the story that he opens his book with and in that moment I was hooked. He recounted a story of the frontlines during the First World War and the events that transpired during the first Christmas Eve. I will give an abbreviated account here.

Western frontline fighters on both sides of world war one had been bogged down fighting, many not having slept in days, just prior to Christmas Eve. The men could not get out the trenches to retrieve their dead, the setting is bleak, a low point in the human experience. In the evening of Christmas Eve, the allied forces noticed that the German frontline was beginning to literally light up. The German frontline had received small ornamental Christmas trees from the German government that could light up. It was hoped that it would  brighten the mood of the soldiers. In addition to the trees the German soldiers began to sing Christmas carols. The allied forces were stunned. After the German's sang Silent Night the allies spontaneously applauded and responded by singing carols back in English. It was a matter of time; some brave individuals crawled out of the trenches and walked across the battlefield toward the other line. Gradually, scores of men were coming out of the trenches. The two sides met in the middle, shook hands, shared pictures of their families and cooperatively buried their dead. Over the course of a couple of days the fighting on the frontline stopped. It was a transcending moment in human history. The soldiers, as Rifkin recounts, got beyond the nationalistic differences and embraced each other in their common experience of being human. The core of human nature was expressed, our empathetic nature.

It is my hope through the next series of posts that I can explore the empathic nature of people and shed some light as to the role that empathy plays in educational leadership. This core nature is, I feel, at the heart of education. It is one of the fundamental qualities that we want to foster the development of in our students, teachers and leaders. When focusing on leadership there are a number of personal traits that arise again and again in the literature pointing to beliefs, values and behaviors such as; honesty, highly developed communication skills, flexibility, support of equity and social justice. A thread that seems to weave its way through these traits is that of empathy. Empathic leaders are ones who have a highly developed ability to recognize and respond to the emotional state of the individuals with which they interact. As a result of the interactions with others, these individuals have an innate ability to develop trust, motivate and bridge gaps in education that others would have difficulty doing. Understanding what empathy is and its role in the development of relationships will enhance leadership's ability to transform school cultures by building trust and fostering collaboration in the drive to create learning organizations.

There are a number of areas of education that I would like to explore with regards to empathy. Firstly, what is our understanding of the development of the empathic drive from infant to adult? Secondly, how can educators help foster the development of empathy through the presentation of curriculum and behavior modification? How is empathy linked to the development of relationships within a staff specifically as related to trust and communication? Having a good understanding of empathy how will this support the development of a vision that is that of a learning organization? Armed with these questions I hope to generate a greater understanding of empathy and its impact on leadership.

Here is an RSA animate on the Empathic Civilization that Rifkin narrates. It is thought provoking, especially in the context of the postmodern experience. 

References

CBC (aired November 17, 2010). The empathic civilization. Ideas- CBC radio one. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/episodes/2010/11/17/the-empathic-civilization-1/

Rifkin, J. (2009). The empathic civilization; The race to global consciousness in a world in crisis. New York, NY: Tarcher/ Pengiun.

Cognitive Learning Theory: Who Knew?

For those of you that are not familiar with cognitive load theory and are involved in teaching, I feel that the insights that it provides are well worth reflecting on. Cognitive load theory as I understand it, describes the amount of information that a person can handle at any given time. It can be found both in the long term storage and the short term access (RAM) cognitive areas. It can be divided up into three broad categories; intrinsic , extraneous and germane cognitive load. Intrinsic load refers to a topics level of difficulty. High intrinsic load relates to a difficult topic that contains abstract ideas which learners often do not have prior experiences that would allow greater ease of understanding. Learning organic chemistry is difficult. It is a foreign concept to most, especially when one tries to understand the complex processes that are involved in organic chemical reactions and their mechanisms. Another intrinsically loaded topic is that of unit analysis in science. I recall an experience of trying to teach this to students over the course of three days only to have the top level students really understand it.

Extraneous load is something that we as educators are occasionally guilty of creating. This refers to those times when you have made something much more difficult than it is. An example would be in those situations when you are trying to teach a concept and truly do not entirely understand yourself. You fumble through a lesson without properly looking into what would be the best examples to use in your explanation or even worse you have not worked through the examples yourself. It is important to reduce extraneous load, make information more accessible as opposed to making it more difficult.

Third in the cognitive load theory considerations is that of the germane load, ". . .germane cognitive load is the load required for schema formation and automation" (Ayers, 2006, p. 287). An example that Sweller (1998) provides in the development of schema is that of a child learning to read (p.255). A child must learn to recognize letters initially and then combining those letters into words. The letters may appear in a number of different forms. This information is stored in long term memory providing a reservoir of information for an individual to draw upon. This germane load has a positive effect on learning, particularly when it comes to the acquisition of skills.

In addition to the three aspects of cognitive load theory I would like to talk about four effects that impact classroom learning; modality effect, split attention effect, worked examples and expertise reversal effects. The modality effect refers to situations where two different modes of instruction are being combined together to enhance a learners experience. This could be as simple as the audio and video components of a presentation. The two modes of interaction lead to an enhanced experience of the material and thus a greater understanding of the information.

On the other hand, the split attention effect is one where a learner is exposed to too many modes. A common example of this would be in a classroom setting where a student is trying to take notes off of an overhead or power point presentation and the instructor continues to talk about the information on the slide, providing additional and extraneous information. This leads to a decrease in the learner's experience. The student does not know whether to listen to the instructor or focus on the notes. Essentially they are left floundering and in a state of suspension as they try to decide what information is more important. Another example would be watching a foreign movie where there are subtitles. The observer will more often than not tune out the dialogue that is happening on the screen as they can only focus on the information that is presented in the subtitles.

Chalk and talk where a teacher takes time to work step by step through a problem to obtain a solution is often thought of as an out of date approach to teaching. It has its place in learning. Worked examples pertain to a method of instruction where a step by step approach is the best way to explore a solution to a problem. It is much more difficult for a student to understand the solution to the problem when given the entire solution all at once. There are barriers that are created cognitively for the learner as they do not have the proper schema to understand the why each step was done. Thus when dealing with information that requires a step wise approach, ensure that you take the time to gradually work through examples that build up in a conceptually sequential way. Chalk and talk does have its place in a classroom.

Finally, have you ever had the situation where your students understand the information and have adequately developed the schema to solve the problems that you are giving them? In those situations it is actually detrimental to continue to provide the slow step wise approach to the solution. As the expert reversal effect comes into play learners are actually hindered by the slow stepwise methodology. Students are in a position that you are providing extraneous information that they do not require to understand the information. Their attention will be split as they try and work ahead of you to solve the problem.

Consideration of the cognitive load theory and the four learner effects that I highlighted here bring to light the complexity of the teaching profession. As teachers we are required to address the individual needs of all learners in the classroom being mindful of our instructional design. We also need to be aware of the fact that students are going to be in a number of different learning states throughout our lessons. Being mindful creating a learning environment where germane load is increased, intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load are reduced and paying attention to the design of the lesson with regards to the modality, split attention, expert reversal effects and worked examples will lead to better student outcomes.

References

Ayers, P. (2006). Impact of reducing intrinsic cognitive load on learning in a mathematical domain. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 287-298

Sweller, J. (2006). Discussion of emerging topics in cognitive load research: Using learner and information characteristics in the design of powerful learning environments'. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(3), 353-357.

Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. and Paas, F. (1998) Cognitive Architecture and Instrucitonal Design. Educational Psychology Review 10(3), 251-296

Evolving Trends in Professional Development

Professional development (PD) is one of core principles of effective instructional leadership. Instructional leadership is often put on the back burner in terms of priorities giving way to the managerial tasks that face the principal on a daily basis. It is important that this does not occur within a school. It is through effective PD that good quality teaching and learning is facilitated, a vision for an organization is solidified, change is supported and a culture of learning is developed for all within the building.

It has been a trend for PD to be a top down initiative where teachers are presented material in a one shot workshop with hopes of changing practice. It is difficult for teachers to implement these strategies when they become a changed individual and re-enter an unchanged environment. Analogous to this is the story of students who participate in the LEAP program here in the Calgary Board of Education. "The goal of the LEAP (Learning Essential to Achieve Potential) program is to provide proactive support and interventions for junior high students identified as having mild to moderate behavioural needs" (Calgary Board of Education, 2010). These students participate in a six week program where by they gain skills to be able to survive in a traditional classroom but upon their return many individuals do not experience success. These students are re-entering an environment which has not changed. Not unlike the LEAP program the success of PD is dependant on the support and structures that the principal creates within their organization hence the need for change.

One trend that is changing our approach to PD is through the consideration of context. With regards to the development of a educational leaders as life long learning leaders Scott and Webber (2008) state that "[i]nsights gained through productive cognitive dissonance prepares learners for transitions to different responsibility levels within their organizations" (p.769). When applying this to the development of teachers the question arises as to how can we create situations where individuals get out of their comfort zone? Through the creation of vignettes, contextual situations where individuals are not sure what to do, teachers are forced to think outside of their box. Goldberg and Gallimore (1991)  further this by stating that  "[t]hese contexts should consist, preeminently, of engaging teachers in rigorous examinations of teaching; the concrete challenges and problems they face, the range of problems they face, the range of solutions, and, most important, close examination of whether,over time, there is progress in addressing these challenges" (p.69).

In addition to the contextual component of the PD, there is a requirement of embedding the PD throughout the year in the form of peer coaching. Showers and Joyce (1996) outline a number of principles of peer coaching; everyone needs to be on board, omit verbal feedback (focus on planning and developing curriculum and instruction),  the one teaching is the coach whereas the observer is the one being coached. Counter to the notion of instructional supervision, peer coaching diverges from the top down approach of commonly implemented PD. The supervision cycle of passive observation and critical feedback seems to be archaic with the introduction of embedded peer coaching.

Through efforts of  providing context and peer coaching, PD appears to be making a movement away from the on shot training efforts of the past.

References

Calgary Board of Education. (2010). Services for students with emotional/behavioural disabilities. Retrived from http://www.cbe.ab.ca/programs/spec_ed/se-emot-behav.asp#leap

Goldenberg, C., & Gallimore, R. (1991). Changing teaching takes more than a one-shot workshop. Educational Leadership(November), 69-72.

Scott, S., & Webber, C. F. (2008). Evidence-based leadership development: The 4L framework. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(6), 762-776.

Showers, B., & Joyce, B. (1996). The evolution of peer coaching. Educational Leadership, 53(6), 12-16. 

Issues in Professional Development

Professional development is an opportunity for individuals to explore their interests and to support and enhance their practice. Teachers participate in professional development throughout their time within schools. Opportunities are provided to teachers in the form of participating in conventions, school led PD, to individual plans that are developed by the staff themselves. It is the embodiment of life long learning, a skill that we as educators hope to pass on to the students with whom we cross paths.

There are a number of issues arise in discussing the concept of professional development; need, delivery and mastery.

Issue 1: Need
The focus for professional development can be conceptually divided up into two broad categories. First is the need to address changes in education as a whole. Changes that arise as a result of a shift from modernity to post modernity, globalization and the realizations of dealing with global climate change. Education is undertaking a systemic change and the primary delivers need to be informed. Secondly, the changing needs of the teachers to successfully educate the 21st century learner. A learner that is more connected than any other generation in the past with an understanding that knowledge is contained in relationships between individuals. The question arises as to what need we are trying to address in this professional development? Will it have a direct or indirect impact on student learning and subsequently lead to better student outcomes?

Issue 2: Delivery
There are a three considerations when it comes to the delivery of the professional development; selection of what to do, how will it be delivered and who will choose? When choosing what to do for professional development there is an investment in planning that helps to ensure its success. It is of the utmost importance that the activity is directly linked to the needs addressed above. In addition, the professional development must to be grounded in research, both site-based and based in realm of academia. This grounding offers protection to those participating. There is nothing more cruel than implementing programs that are not supported broadly which turn out to be ineffectual.

With regards to the delivery of professional development a good understanding of adult learning theory is important. Recognizing the learning styles and the motivation of adults allow one to tailor professional development activities. It may be one individual or a committee that addresses the answer of how to deliver the information. Selection of presenters could happen within the facility itself, using expert teachers found within the facility or outside sources could be used in the form of educational specialists.

Finally there is the issue of who is driving the professional development? There could be a top down approach where system leaders implement programs without consultation with the primary recipients. This autocratic approach has draw backs in terms of the motivation of the participants in the development activities. The need for the PD may not be apparent, and as a result participation will lack resolve. On the other hand, it may be driven by an organic process where individuals recognize needs and voice them. Front line teachers having their needs recognized will be motivated to participate. The motivation creates a positive emotion in connection with the development activity and hence there is the potential of success.

Issue 3: Mastery
Given the recognition of the need for the professional development and the investment of time developing the appropriate delivery of the information the final consideration of your activity will be that of mastery. Will the individuals be able to successfully master the information? Communicating the expectations of what success looks like to the staff  is an important first step in mastery. Secondly, setting time lines and providing ongoing support will enhance the opportunity for its success. Finally making it a priority by providing sufficient time and resources throughout the rest of your timeline will provide the pillars for successful professional development.

Through this post I have identified three major considerations in the process of professional development; identifying needs, appropriate delivery and supporting mastery. When considering professional development and the potential that it has on impacting student learning it becomes apparent that issues of its implementation need to be addressed. Teachers are not islands onto themselves who participate in a process of isolated enlightenment. Working together as a field, drawing on information that is grounded in sound educational principles will lead us to enhanced student engagement and outcomes.

Motivation and Learning

Motivation is one of the keystones to successful learning. As teachers it is one of the most important considerations when planning instruction for their audience.  The question arises as to what motivation is and how can we as educators maximize it? Is the motivation of all audiences the same or are there significant differences between the motivation of children and adults as learners?

Have you ever struggled with your motivation? Faced with a long list of tasks to complete and no end in site, the light at the end of the tunnel is a mere point of light which does not seem to be getting larger. Wlodkowski (2004) refers to the word motivation “to describe those processes that can energize behavior and give direction or purpose to behavior” (p. 93). It is harnessing this energy and aligning the purpose of the behaviour of the learner with those of the instructor that will help in maximizing motivation. Recognizing the role that motivation has for educators is one of the keys to it's success.

Dan Pink recently wrote a book called "Drive." Pink highlights what he feels are the keys to motivating people within the workplace. Currently there is a belief in the field of business that if you want to motivate your workers you need to provide a large enough carrot. He tells us that carrots or incentives act to only motivate individuals that are performing the most basic and rudimentary of tasks. So how does one motivate individuals that have a much more complex task. To the surprise of most people it is not providing a larger incentive.

Pink outlines the role that autonomy, mastery and purpose play in the motivation of individuals to perform. Autonomy is providing the opportunity for individuals to be self-directed. Give the learner the opportunity to do something that they would like to do in relation to their job or topic and people will work harder.

In addition to autonomy is the concept of mastery. Learners will be motivated to complete tasks that they feel that they would have the ability to master. Mastery is the reason why people play video games, train to run a marathon, or practice a musical instrument on the weekend even when their is no economic benefit. This is also echoed by Wlodkowski (2004) “It is critical for adults to feel willing to learn what they expect they can successfully master.” (p. 93). Individuals feel that with the appropriate amount of effort they will be able to complete the task and the completion of it is extremely satisfying. Finally, the idea that the work that is being completed must in some way offer a sense of purpose. A learner may ask themselves in completing this task am I making a greater contribution to humanity as a whole. It is through the three concepts of autonomy, mastery and purpose that motivation is harnessed by leaders and teachers alike.  

It is important to recognize that it is not necessary for you to have all three concepts working together to achieve motivation. Motivation is a complex process that could simply include one of three; autonomy, mastery and purpose or any combination of the three. It is however very compelling to be aware of the role that these concepts play in the motivation of individuals. The question then arises, is there a difference between the motivation of adults verses children when they are learning?

Because of the complexity of the idea of motivation I would have to say that it is difficult to conclusively iidentify a difference between the motivations of adults and children as learners. On the one hand Wlodkowski (2004) states that “[r]esearch consistently shows that adults are highly pragmatic learners. They have a strong need to apply what they have learned and to be competent in that application”(p. 92). On the other hand I can not see any reason why children would not be pragmatic in their learning. It is the teacher that is able to show that the material that the child learner is being exposed to relates directly to their experience that will be the most successful.

Wlodkowski (2004) also highlights six factors to consider in the motivation of learners and their role in creating a motivating lesson:

1. attitude - maintaining or creating a positive attitude about the learning
2. need - fulfilling a need through learning
3. stimulation - keep the learner engaged
4. affect - connecting to emotions when learning
5. competence - mastery of tasks is intrinsically satisfying
6. reinforcement - positively reinforce behaviors of learners, grades, attention etc. . . (p. 95-97)

These factors are clearly ones that would affect both the child and adult learner. However it is important to consider the responsibilities of the adult learner when compared to the child learner; “unlike children for whom school may be their first priority, adults have other serious responsibilities and learning may be one more demand added on to an already stressful lifestyle” (Wlodkowski, 2004, p. 96). It may be more difficult to create a positive attitude on a topic, uncover the specific need for the new material, stimulate them during a lesson and create a positive affect in relation to the material as a result of their brain being tied up in the everyday grind of the adult world. 

Motivation is a complex idea that has a tremendous impact on the success of learners acquiring information. Having a clearer understanding of motivation and the ways to increase it will not only improve the impact of teachers but the success of learners as a whole.

References

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.), The New Update on Adult Learning Theory (Vol. 89, pp. 3-13). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pink, D. [Video File]. RSA animate-Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Cognitive media. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc

Wlodkowski, R. J. (2004). Strategies to enhance adult motivation to learn. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction (3rd ed., pp. 91-112). Florida. USA: Krieger Publishing.