Cognitive Learning Theory: Who Knew?

For those of you that are not familiar with cognitive load theory and are involved in teaching, I feel that the insights that it provides are well worth reflecting on. Cognitive load theory as I understand it, describes the amount of information that a person can handle at any given time. It can be found both in the long term storage and the short term access (RAM) cognitive areas. It can be divided up into three broad categories; intrinsic , extraneous and germane cognitive load. Intrinsic load refers to a topics level of difficulty. High intrinsic load relates to a difficult topic that contains abstract ideas which learners often do not have prior experiences that would allow greater ease of understanding. Learning organic chemistry is difficult. It is a foreign concept to most, especially when one tries to understand the complex processes that are involved in organic chemical reactions and their mechanisms. Another intrinsically loaded topic is that of unit analysis in science. I recall an experience of trying to teach this to students over the course of three days only to have the top level students really understand it.

Extraneous load is something that we as educators are occasionally guilty of creating. This refers to those times when you have made something much more difficult than it is. An example would be in those situations when you are trying to teach a concept and truly do not entirely understand yourself. You fumble through a lesson without properly looking into what would be the best examples to use in your explanation or even worse you have not worked through the examples yourself. It is important to reduce extraneous load, make information more accessible as opposed to making it more difficult.

Third in the cognitive load theory considerations is that of the germane load, ". . .germane cognitive load is the load required for schema formation and automation" (Ayers, 2006, p. 287). An example that Sweller (1998) provides in the development of schema is that of a child learning to read (p.255). A child must learn to recognize letters initially and then combining those letters into words. The letters may appear in a number of different forms. This information is stored in long term memory providing a reservoir of information for an individual to draw upon. This germane load has a positive effect on learning, particularly when it comes to the acquisition of skills.

In addition to the three aspects of cognitive load theory I would like to talk about four effects that impact classroom learning; modality effect, split attention effect, worked examples and expertise reversal effects. The modality effect refers to situations where two different modes of instruction are being combined together to enhance a learners experience. This could be as simple as the audio and video components of a presentation. The two modes of interaction lead to an enhanced experience of the material and thus a greater understanding of the information.

On the other hand, the split attention effect is one where a learner is exposed to too many modes. A common example of this would be in a classroom setting where a student is trying to take notes off of an overhead or power point presentation and the instructor continues to talk about the information on the slide, providing additional and extraneous information. This leads to a decrease in the learner's experience. The student does not know whether to listen to the instructor or focus on the notes. Essentially they are left floundering and in a state of suspension as they try to decide what information is more important. Another example would be watching a foreign movie where there are subtitles. The observer will more often than not tune out the dialogue that is happening on the screen as they can only focus on the information that is presented in the subtitles.

Chalk and talk where a teacher takes time to work step by step through a problem to obtain a solution is often thought of as an out of date approach to teaching. It has its place in learning. Worked examples pertain to a method of instruction where a step by step approach is the best way to explore a solution to a problem. It is much more difficult for a student to understand the solution to the problem when given the entire solution all at once. There are barriers that are created cognitively for the learner as they do not have the proper schema to understand the why each step was done. Thus when dealing with information that requires a step wise approach, ensure that you take the time to gradually work through examples that build up in a conceptually sequential way. Chalk and talk does have its place in a classroom.

Finally, have you ever had the situation where your students understand the information and have adequately developed the schema to solve the problems that you are giving them? In those situations it is actually detrimental to continue to provide the slow step wise approach to the solution. As the expert reversal effect comes into play learners are actually hindered by the slow stepwise methodology. Students are in a position that you are providing extraneous information that they do not require to understand the information. Their attention will be split as they try and work ahead of you to solve the problem.

Consideration of the cognitive load theory and the four learner effects that I highlighted here bring to light the complexity of the teaching profession. As teachers we are required to address the individual needs of all learners in the classroom being mindful of our instructional design. We also need to be aware of the fact that students are going to be in a number of different learning states throughout our lessons. Being mindful creating a learning environment where germane load is increased, intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load are reduced and paying attention to the design of the lesson with regards to the modality, split attention, expert reversal effects and worked examples will lead to better student outcomes.

References

Ayers, P. (2006). Impact of reducing intrinsic cognitive load on learning in a mathematical domain. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 287-298

Sweller, J. (2006). Discussion of emerging topics in cognitive load research: Using learner and information characteristics in the design of powerful learning environments'. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(3), 353-357.

Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. and Paas, F. (1998) Cognitive Architecture and Instrucitonal Design. Educational Psychology Review 10(3), 251-296

Evolving Trends in Professional Development

Professional development (PD) is one of core principles of effective instructional leadership. Instructional leadership is often put on the back burner in terms of priorities giving way to the managerial tasks that face the principal on a daily basis. It is important that this does not occur within a school. It is through effective PD that good quality teaching and learning is facilitated, a vision for an organization is solidified, change is supported and a culture of learning is developed for all within the building.

It has been a trend for PD to be a top down initiative where teachers are presented material in a one shot workshop with hopes of changing practice. It is difficult for teachers to implement these strategies when they become a changed individual and re-enter an unchanged environment. Analogous to this is the story of students who participate in the LEAP program here in the Calgary Board of Education. "The goal of the LEAP (Learning Essential to Achieve Potential) program is to provide proactive support and interventions for junior high students identified as having mild to moderate behavioural needs" (Calgary Board of Education, 2010). These students participate in a six week program where by they gain skills to be able to survive in a traditional classroom but upon their return many individuals do not experience success. These students are re-entering an environment which has not changed. Not unlike the LEAP program the success of PD is dependant on the support and structures that the principal creates within their organization hence the need for change.

One trend that is changing our approach to PD is through the consideration of context. With regards to the development of a educational leaders as life long learning leaders Scott and Webber (2008) state that "[i]nsights gained through productive cognitive dissonance prepares learners for transitions to different responsibility levels within their organizations" (p.769). When applying this to the development of teachers the question arises as to how can we create situations where individuals get out of their comfort zone? Through the creation of vignettes, contextual situations where individuals are not sure what to do, teachers are forced to think outside of their box. Goldberg and Gallimore (1991)  further this by stating that  "[t]hese contexts should consist, preeminently, of engaging teachers in rigorous examinations of teaching; the concrete challenges and problems they face, the range of problems they face, the range of solutions, and, most important, close examination of whether,over time, there is progress in addressing these challenges" (p.69).

In addition to the contextual component of the PD, there is a requirement of embedding the PD throughout the year in the form of peer coaching. Showers and Joyce (1996) outline a number of principles of peer coaching; everyone needs to be on board, omit verbal feedback (focus on planning and developing curriculum and instruction),  the one teaching is the coach whereas the observer is the one being coached. Counter to the notion of instructional supervision, peer coaching diverges from the top down approach of commonly implemented PD. The supervision cycle of passive observation and critical feedback seems to be archaic with the introduction of embedded peer coaching.

Through efforts of  providing context and peer coaching, PD appears to be making a movement away from the on shot training efforts of the past.

References

Calgary Board of Education. (2010). Services for students with emotional/behavioural disabilities. Retrived from http://www.cbe.ab.ca/programs/spec_ed/se-emot-behav.asp#leap

Goldenberg, C., & Gallimore, R. (1991). Changing teaching takes more than a one-shot workshop. Educational Leadership(November), 69-72.

Scott, S., & Webber, C. F. (2008). Evidence-based leadership development: The 4L framework. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(6), 762-776.

Showers, B., & Joyce, B. (1996). The evolution of peer coaching. Educational Leadership, 53(6), 12-16. 

Issues in Professional Development

Professional development is an opportunity for individuals to explore their interests and to support and enhance their practice. Teachers participate in professional development throughout their time within schools. Opportunities are provided to teachers in the form of participating in conventions, school led PD, to individual plans that are developed by the staff themselves. It is the embodiment of life long learning, a skill that we as educators hope to pass on to the students with whom we cross paths.

There are a number of issues arise in discussing the concept of professional development; need, delivery and mastery.

Issue 1: Need
The focus for professional development can be conceptually divided up into two broad categories. First is the need to address changes in education as a whole. Changes that arise as a result of a shift from modernity to post modernity, globalization and the realizations of dealing with global climate change. Education is undertaking a systemic change and the primary delivers need to be informed. Secondly, the changing needs of the teachers to successfully educate the 21st century learner. A learner that is more connected than any other generation in the past with an understanding that knowledge is contained in relationships between individuals. The question arises as to what need we are trying to address in this professional development? Will it have a direct or indirect impact on student learning and subsequently lead to better student outcomes?

Issue 2: Delivery
There are a three considerations when it comes to the delivery of the professional development; selection of what to do, how will it be delivered and who will choose? When choosing what to do for professional development there is an investment in planning that helps to ensure its success. It is of the utmost importance that the activity is directly linked to the needs addressed above. In addition, the professional development must to be grounded in research, both site-based and based in realm of academia. This grounding offers protection to those participating. There is nothing more cruel than implementing programs that are not supported broadly which turn out to be ineffectual.

With regards to the delivery of professional development a good understanding of adult learning theory is important. Recognizing the learning styles and the motivation of adults allow one to tailor professional development activities. It may be one individual or a committee that addresses the answer of how to deliver the information. Selection of presenters could happen within the facility itself, using expert teachers found within the facility or outside sources could be used in the form of educational specialists.

Finally there is the issue of who is driving the professional development? There could be a top down approach where system leaders implement programs without consultation with the primary recipients. This autocratic approach has draw backs in terms of the motivation of the participants in the development activities. The need for the PD may not be apparent, and as a result participation will lack resolve. On the other hand, it may be driven by an organic process where individuals recognize needs and voice them. Front line teachers having their needs recognized will be motivated to participate. The motivation creates a positive emotion in connection with the development activity and hence there is the potential of success.

Issue 3: Mastery
Given the recognition of the need for the professional development and the investment of time developing the appropriate delivery of the information the final consideration of your activity will be that of mastery. Will the individuals be able to successfully master the information? Communicating the expectations of what success looks like to the staff  is an important first step in mastery. Secondly, setting time lines and providing ongoing support will enhance the opportunity for its success. Finally making it a priority by providing sufficient time and resources throughout the rest of your timeline will provide the pillars for successful professional development.

Through this post I have identified three major considerations in the process of professional development; identifying needs, appropriate delivery and supporting mastery. When considering professional development and the potential that it has on impacting student learning it becomes apparent that issues of its implementation need to be addressed. Teachers are not islands onto themselves who participate in a process of isolated enlightenment. Working together as a field, drawing on information that is grounded in sound educational principles will lead us to enhanced student engagement and outcomes.

Motivation and Learning

Motivation is one of the keystones to successful learning. As teachers it is one of the most important considerations when planning instruction for their audience.  The question arises as to what motivation is and how can we as educators maximize it? Is the motivation of all audiences the same or are there significant differences between the motivation of children and adults as learners?

Have you ever struggled with your motivation? Faced with a long list of tasks to complete and no end in site, the light at the end of the tunnel is a mere point of light which does not seem to be getting larger. Wlodkowski (2004) refers to the word motivation “to describe those processes that can energize behavior and give direction or purpose to behavior” (p. 93). It is harnessing this energy and aligning the purpose of the behaviour of the learner with those of the instructor that will help in maximizing motivation. Recognizing the role that motivation has for educators is one of the keys to it's success.

Dan Pink recently wrote a book called "Drive." Pink highlights what he feels are the keys to motivating people within the workplace. Currently there is a belief in the field of business that if you want to motivate your workers you need to provide a large enough carrot. He tells us that carrots or incentives act to only motivate individuals that are performing the most basic and rudimentary of tasks. So how does one motivate individuals that have a much more complex task. To the surprise of most people it is not providing a larger incentive.

Pink outlines the role that autonomy, mastery and purpose play in the motivation of individuals to perform. Autonomy is providing the opportunity for individuals to be self-directed. Give the learner the opportunity to do something that they would like to do in relation to their job or topic and people will work harder.

In addition to autonomy is the concept of mastery. Learners will be motivated to complete tasks that they feel that they would have the ability to master. Mastery is the reason why people play video games, train to run a marathon, or practice a musical instrument on the weekend even when their is no economic benefit. This is also echoed by Wlodkowski (2004) “It is critical for adults to feel willing to learn what they expect they can successfully master.” (p. 93). Individuals feel that with the appropriate amount of effort they will be able to complete the task and the completion of it is extremely satisfying. Finally, the idea that the work that is being completed must in some way offer a sense of purpose. A learner may ask themselves in completing this task am I making a greater contribution to humanity as a whole. It is through the three concepts of autonomy, mastery and purpose that motivation is harnessed by leaders and teachers alike.  

It is important to recognize that it is not necessary for you to have all three concepts working together to achieve motivation. Motivation is a complex process that could simply include one of three; autonomy, mastery and purpose or any combination of the three. It is however very compelling to be aware of the role that these concepts play in the motivation of individuals. The question then arises, is there a difference between the motivation of adults verses children when they are learning?

Because of the complexity of the idea of motivation I would have to say that it is difficult to conclusively iidentify a difference between the motivations of adults and children as learners. On the one hand Wlodkowski (2004) states that “[r]esearch consistently shows that adults are highly pragmatic learners. They have a strong need to apply what they have learned and to be competent in that application”(p. 92). On the other hand I can not see any reason why children would not be pragmatic in their learning. It is the teacher that is able to show that the material that the child learner is being exposed to relates directly to their experience that will be the most successful.

Wlodkowski (2004) also highlights six factors to consider in the motivation of learners and their role in creating a motivating lesson:

1. attitude - maintaining or creating a positive attitude about the learning
2. need - fulfilling a need through learning
3. stimulation - keep the learner engaged
4. affect - connecting to emotions when learning
5. competence - mastery of tasks is intrinsically satisfying
6. reinforcement - positively reinforce behaviors of learners, grades, attention etc. . . (p. 95-97)

These factors are clearly ones that would affect both the child and adult learner. However it is important to consider the responsibilities of the adult learner when compared to the child learner; “unlike children for whom school may be their first priority, adults have other serious responsibilities and learning may be one more demand added on to an already stressful lifestyle” (Wlodkowski, 2004, p. 96). It may be more difficult to create a positive attitude on a topic, uncover the specific need for the new material, stimulate them during a lesson and create a positive affect in relation to the material as a result of their brain being tied up in the everyday grind of the adult world. 

Motivation is a complex idea that has a tremendous impact on the success of learners acquiring information. Having a clearer understanding of motivation and the ways to increase it will not only improve the impact of teachers but the success of learners as a whole.

References

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.), The New Update on Adult Learning Theory (Vol. 89, pp. 3-13). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pink, D. [Video File]. RSA animate-Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Cognitive media. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc

Wlodkowski, R. J. (2004). Strategies to enhance adult motivation to learn. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction (3rd ed., pp. 91-112). Florida. USA: Krieger Publishing.